AN ACADEMIC LOOK AT WHAT LED TO ORGANISED SPIRITUALISM IN THE 1700s + 1800s
Séance led by John Beattie, Bristol, England, 1872 (from the Eugène Rochas Papers held at the American Philosophical Society Library)
This refers to the European religious revival which spanned the 18th and 19th centuries. It focused on people's personal and emotional religious experience, as well as individual rights and the celebration of reason. - Paramount to this way of thinking, was the power through which we understand the multiverse and enhance our lives. Moreover, this construct included rational humanity; this was regarded as happiness, freedom, and knowledge. In the UK, these sentiments influenced political thought, philosophical debates, and legal reforms [1].
The Great Awakening
Also known as the Evangelical Revival, this describes the torrent of intellectual religious revivalism and enthusiasm that engulfed the UK and its colonies between the 1730s and the 1740s. As a movement, the Great Awakening placed an accent on science, reason, and the rights of the individual. Moreover, it was regarded as a response against the materialistic and corporate attitude that was being embraced by the main churches. Furthermore, this period had a substantial impact on Christianity. It created a diverse outlook on faith, and thus set the scene for future religious pluralism [1].
So in a nutshell, although both the aforementioned movements were initiated in Europe, they nonetheless, advocated very different objectives: the Great Awakening promoted an ardent emotional religiosity, whereas the Enlightenment encouraged the need to find reasoning in all things [1].
A New Way of Thinking
Some of the aforementioned perspectives that were derived from the Enlightenment and Great Awakening, promoted Spiritualism as the ideal belief system for radical individualism. And this drove some people (particularly those in the US and UK), to look beyond (a): the dogmas of their government's social injustices; and (b): the creed that was propagated by mainstream churches. - The latter of which were recognised for their favour towards the upper social classes and lack of sensitivity in towards various important causes. (These included the abolition of slavery, empowering Native Indians, and promoting women's rights). - All factors that ignited progressivism and an interest in a more inward Spiritual outlook. - A phenomena which later down the line in 1848, would rocketed up by the advent of Modern Spiritualism [1].
SOCIAL CONDITIONS BETWEEN 1700 - 1740
"Eighteenth-century England presented a picture of substantial religious diversity" [1], moreover, "the established churches brought a religious sanction to the existing social hierarchy and political order. They fostered learning and were patrons of the arts" [2]
Between 1700 and 1740, (over a hundred years prior to the 1848 spiritual phenomena events in Hydesville, New York), around 80 percent of the American population regularly attended church. However, the Great Awakening (which comprised several intervals in American Christian history), started to gain traction. This served to "make religion more personal by fostering a sense of spiritual conviction for one's own sins, the need for redemption, and encouraging introspection and a commitment to personal morality" [3].
DEMINISHING CHURCH ATENDEES
During the Great Awakening, "there were significantly fewer church attendances across the country, and many people were bored and unsatisfied with the way that the sermons were conducted. [Moreover], they criticized the lack of enthusiasm from their preachers, and this made religion appear less important" [4].
THE 1800s
"Sweeping changes transformed both the public's social lives and private family lives of the British people. Increased literacy, combined with the Restoration, led the British people to an increasingly public life. There was a clear gap between the wealthy and the poor, which made itself visible in almost all aspects of life" [5]
During the 1830s, a class conflict across the UK provoked attacks on the established churches. From the perspective of a large number of labourers, the latter were no more than corrupt moneyed institutions which served to support the advantaged upper social classes and keep the commoners downtrodden. Indeed, such churches were seen by many as promoters of a hugely oppressive social order [2].
THE US 1848 - 1865
The Fox Sisters
Despite the previous acknowledgement of eminent Spiritualists such as the scientist, theologian and philosopher, Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1722), and the seer, Andrew Jackson Davis (1826-1910), it was only on March 31st 1848, that the revolutionary birth of modern and rational Spiritualism occurred. Taking place in Hydesville, New York State, this came about when members of the Fox family, experienced unexplained rapping noises. - These seemed to be emanating from the spirit of a murdered peddler, whose body was buried in the house (and thought to be found many years later). Indeed, two of the Fox Sisters (Kate and Margaret) had realised that they could communicate with his discarnate spirit via a series of knocks.
So in light of the aforementioned, this miraculous discovery ignited a phenomenon that would catapult Spiritualism into the collective consciousness. This revolutionized people's belief that after physical death, life continues on in another form, and that it is possible to communicate with discarnate spirit [6].
Indeed, the aforementioned serves as the crucial message that the spirit world want to impress upon humanity. And it is through this interaction between a genuine medium (whether trained or untrained), and the receiver/s, that:
- Messages can be passed on from our loved ones and others in the realms of spirit
- We can be given guidance from this higher source of intelligence on how we can live our lives and be at one with others, nature, and all this is, in the most optimum way possible (in accordance with Spiritualist principles)
- We can gain a greater understanding about our reason for being, and our place in the multiverse
The news of this Spiritualist revelation of life after death (often referred to as life after life), spread like wildfire across countless communities in the US. And this propelled countless curious people to travel far and wide to witness the abilities of the Fox sisters. The latter started to give public demonstrations in various venues in the US, and as their notoriety exploded, it magnetized the interest of both believers and sceptics alike. The Fox sisters were also the catalyst for the emergence of organised spirit communication across the US, Europe, and other parts of the world where many Spiritualist communities and practices were set up [6].
Indeed, fast-forward to today, and Spiritualism (along with its offshoot, Spiritism), both of which are devoid of religious dogmas, are officially recognised as religions in various parts of the world. (This includes the US, Canada, the UK and Brazil) [6]. Of note, some organisations are Christian Spiritualists/Spiritists, whilst others are open to all denominations.
THE HICKSIDE QUAKERS
In late Spring, 1848, two long-standing Hicksite Quaker friends of the Fox family - Amy and Isaac Post of Rochester, New York, took the young mediums, Catherine and Margaret Fox into their home. Wholeheartedly believing that the sisters' communications with a discarnate spirit was genuine, the couple became early converts to Spiritualism, and as a result, presented the girls to their circle of Quaker friends [7]. Of note: Hicksite Quakers were a radical branch of Quakers who: "emphasised the Inward Light as the primary basis for religious faith and practice" [8].
The Hicksite Quakers bemoaned both creedal statements, and their current social conditions in which some individuals wielded immense wealth and power [8]. Moreover, they raised serious concerns about the more mainstream churches' lack of sensitivity towards abolishing slavery, and the need to empower women's rights [7]. Furthermore, there was a growing movement to ameliorate the living conditions of native Americans. All of these atrocities attracted a great deal of support from Spiritualists [9] who were invited to the Hickside Quaker circles.
A SURGE IN SPIRITUALISM
In the 1840s, connections to reformation movements (many of which were fundamentally socialist), were starting to bubble up. Andrew Jackson Davis (also known as John the Baptist of Spiritualism, and the prime forerunner to Modern Spiritualism), is an excellent case in point. Davis' clear ideas regarding society, religion, life and death: "came together at a particular historical moment and in a particular place in ways that created fertile soil for the Spiritualist movement. [Moreover, on] examination of his rise to prophethood, Davis' philosophical beliefs, and the group which formed around him in the 1840s, reveal that he lived as both a nineteenth century reformer as well as an embattled leader of a new religious movement. Davis’ life reflects ideas, practices, and impulses that were circulating in Victorian culture and were crucial to the foundation of modern American Spiritualism" [10]. Furthermore,, as reformation was so desperately needed, in 1848, a large percentage of socialists became ardent occultists or spiritualists [11, 12].
Many families suffered during the American Civil War (1861 to 1865), and the social conditions in which people lived were turned upside down. Indeed, the horrendous number of deaths and battlefield casualties ignited a surge in Spiritualism [13]. "Spiritualism rose in 19th century America because the culture placed death in the periphery, leaving certain Americans unresolved and looking to the Victorian death culture. Furthermore... women were drawn to Spiritualism to soothe their grief from a lost loved one, whereas men sought to prove Spiritualism’s claims through a scientific method. Spiritualism was used for social and political reform from the scope of women’s rights... The majority of mediums, including the Fox sisters, were women. Because of their familial and society roles, women were able to communicate with the spirits in a far greater way than a man could. Unlike the majority of Christian denominations, Spiritualism had the necessity of allowing women to practice some form of leadership" [14].
After the revelations of the Fox sisters in 1848, Spiritualism served as a upper and middle-class movement (which was especially favourable with women). Newly established Spiritualist mediums came to the fore, and many of them demonstrated their incredible God given gifts (including trance mediumship), in theatres, lecture halls, and summer camps in the US [19].
In his much revered book series, The History of Spiritualism, dedicated Spiritualist and Sherlock Holmes, author, Arthur Conan Doyle, noted that: "the early Spiritualists have frequently been compared with the early Christians, and there are indeed many points of resemblance" [20]. Moreover, with regard to Britain, Mrs Hayden, a remarkable lady and outstanding medium, was the first exponent to come from America and introduce the new phenomena of Spiritualism and mediumship to these shores. This was in 1852 [20]. Indeed, "through her séances in England and America, Maria’s spirit communication convinced many of the elite and upper classes, as well as scientists and the clergy, that there is life after death. In a day when women were to be deferential to men, Maria forged ahead despite her critics, managing successful careers as a spirit medium, a healing medium, a clairvoyant physician, a psychometrist, and a medical doctor" [21].
The first Spiritualist church was established in1853, Keighley, Yorkshire, in 1853, and the north became a stronghold of working-class spiritualism.Middle-class parlours became hubs of entertainment and leisure. - These served as enthralling places where organised spirit communication and séances ignited people's Spiritual awareness, and gave many the peace of mind that the human soul is eternal [15, 16]. Indeed, statistics show that by 1897, Spiritualism had attracted eight million followers across Europe and the US, the majority of whom comprised the upper and middle classes [17]. Moreover, Spiritualism spread to Australia, and Spiritualism and Spiritism found a following in Latin America, (in countries such as Venezuela and Brazil).
Of note, the UK was the only country in which Spiritualism became as widespread as in the US [18]. Indeed, the Spiritualist Association of Great Britain (SAGB), of which I am a life member, and which currently has countless participants who join in their Divine services, demonstrations of mediumship, healing sessions, open circles, and workshops (which are available either in-person, or via Zoom), traces its origins back to 1872. - Although at this time, it was named the Marylebone Spiritualist Association (MSA), after its founder, Charles Isaac Hunt, who lived in Marylebone [19]. During the earlier years, some of its high profile supporters include: Thomas and Mary Ann Everitt, Arthur Conan Doyle, Lord Dowding, Emma Hardinge Britten, and Estelle Roberts. The SAGB is also known throughout the world as the home of the world's greatest mediums.
ALLAN KARDEC
In the mid-nineteenth century, the founding and coding of Spiritism (an off-shoot of Spiritualism), is credited to French educator and author, Allan Kardec (1804-1869). (Note: Allen Kardec was only a pen name, his birth name was actually Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail) [22].
Spiritism can be described as a reincarnationist and Spiritualist doctrine which is founded on the belief that, in parallel with physical reality, a spirit world is all around us, and that this can be accessed via mediums. "Spiritism maintains that spirits exist separately from human bodies, that humans are incarnate spirits, and that spirits undergo repeated reincarnation into the physical world in a progression toward intellectual and moral perfection" [22]. (Of note, the idea of reincarnation is not accepted by some spiritualists and certain official spiritualist organisations. Although from my personal perspective, as a believer in reincarnation, I feel that keeping open mind to this possibility, is very important).
Kardec was directly influenced by the widespread introduction of American Spiritualist practices that began with the Fox Sisters, and infiltrated France. Moreover, due to his in-depth scientific studies and investigations, he was able to draw up an excellent conceptualisation of Spiritism. And this is said to have helped the restructuring of the Spiritualist movement, thus giving it a more philosophical form, and rendering it more organised [22].
In 1857, Kardec published The Spirits’ Book, the first of five excellent detailed foundational texts on spiritism. He "toured Europe spreading the word of Spiritism before his death in 1869. Of note, the medium and writer Léon Denis, carried the torch of Spiritism in Europe after Kardec’s passing, and it is he who is [one of the proponents who is] credited with consolidating and deepening Spiritism and propelling its reach into Europe" [22].
Allan Kardec's Portrait by Monvoisin
SUMMING UP
In summary, in the 1700s and 1800s, wide ranging social inequalities and injustices (including slavery, the treatment of Native Indians, and the lack of women's rights), dissatisfaction with the religious dogmas and self-interest of the mainstream churches, and the horrors of the American Civil War, propelled the pursuit for blanket reformation and a more Spiritual way of being. The reality of this quest came into full fruition after the 1848 advent of modern and rational Spiritualism in Hydesville, New York. - A phenomena that ignited the emergence of organised Spirit communication - a practice which spread like wildfire across the US, the UK, France, Brazil, and beyond. Indeed, it was a spiritual revolution that set the framework for Spiritualism and Spiritism to be the officially recognised and acknowledged religions they are today. Moreover, many of the Spiritualist organisations that were set up (and supported by great mediums and scientists) in the 1800s and 1900s, are still going strong today. - The Spiritualist Association of Great Britain (SAGB), with its global reach, is an excellent example of the latter.
Video
You may like to watch Spiritual Experiences Throughout History: the 19th Century, Science & Religion, presented by Alexandre Sech Junior, M.A., Ph.D.
And some of you may be interested in watching Talking to the Dead: Victorian Spiritualism and Grief. It is presented by Traci Arieli, and features guest speaker, researcher and historian, Katie Keckeisen (creator of the digital exhibit Beyond the Veil: Spiritualism in the 19th Century)
References
[1]. Harding, Alan (2004). "The Eighteenth‐Century Religious Background", The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion: A Sect in Action in Eighteenth-Century England (Oxford, 2003; online edn, Oxford Academic, 7 Apr. 2003).
https://academic.oup.com/book/10489/chapter-abstract/158377029?redirectedFrom=fu
[2]. Brown, S. J. "The National Churches and the Union in Nineteenth-Century Britain and Ireland." p. 57 - 78. Bonds of Union, edited by Isabelle Bour and Antoine Mioche, Presses Universitaires François-Rabelais, 2005. https://books.openedition.org/pufr/4041?lang=en their preachers.
[3]. History (2024). "Great Awakening."
https://www.history.com/topics/european-history/great-awakening
[4]. World Atlas (2024). "What Were The Causes And Effects Of The Great Awakening?" https://www.worldatlas.com/what-were-the-causes-and-effects-of-thegreatawakening.html#:~:text=We%20have%20already%20mentioned%20the,of%20enthusiasm%20fro m
[5]. University of Delaware. British Literature Wiki (2024). "Social and Family Life in the Late 17th & Early 18th Centuries."
[6]. Harris, D. (2014). "Hydesville Day: Celebrating the Fox Sisters and the Birth of Modern Spiritualism." Croydon Spiritualist Church.
[7]. Braude, A. (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
[8]. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (2024). "Schism and Reform: Circa 1800-1900."
https://www.pym.org/faith-and-practice/historical-background/3-schism-and-reform-circa-1800-1
[9]. Troy, Kathryn (2017). The Specter of the Indian: Race, Gender, and Ghosts in American Séances, 1848-1890. State University of New York Press.
[10]. Wilson, Ian Scott, "The Harmonial Path: Andrew Jackson Davis & The Rise & Fall of a New Religious Movement in Nineteenth century America" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations. 2848.
https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation/2848[11]. Strube, J. (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France". Religion. 46 (3): 359–388.
[12]. United States Spiritist Federation (2024). "Andrew Jackson Davis."https://spiritist.us/andrew-jackson-davis/
[13]. Conan Doyle, A. (1926). The History of Spiritualism Vol I. 5
[14]. Bowlin, D. (2019). "The American Phantasmagoria: The Rise of Spiritualism in NineteenthCentury America." Eastern Michigan University. https://commons.emich.edu/theses/1008/
[15. Stanley, J. P. (2016). " How Spiritualism Spread." Public Books. https://www.publicbooks.org/how-spiritualism-spread/
[16]. Carroll, B. E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Religion in North America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
[17]. New York Times (1897). "Three Forms of Thought; M.M. Mangassarian Addresses the Society for Ethical Culture at Carnegie Music Hall." p. 200.
[18]. Britten, E. H. (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and Their Work in Every Country of the Earth. New York: William Britten.
[19]. The Spiritualist Association of Great Britain (N.d). "Talks by Carrol Wood."
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